gabbeh
Term for heavy, coarsely woven domestic rugs from west Iran. Gabbehs are typically woven in thick wool and brightly coloured to a bold design.

gadrooning
Continuous convex curves or reeding on metalwork, but also imitated on furniture and ceramics. Gadroon borders are made up of interlocking, repeated comma-like bosses, the resulting effect being of a circle in motion. On European TIN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE painted gadroon borders, known as false gadrooning, simulate a three-dimensional effect.

Gainsborough chair
20thC term for an open-sided armchair with upholstered seat, back and arm pads, and concave arm supports.

Gallé, Emile
He founded a glass factory at Nancy, north-east France, in 1867 (closed 1931) and produced much art glass. Among the many techniques he developed were the surface decorations marqueterie sur verre and verreries parlantes. From the mid- 1880s Gallé also designed and made furniture. He drew loosely on 18thC styles, but added carving or marquetry decoration. In the 1890s he experimented with porcelain and stoneware.

gallery
A raised border or miniature railing of wood or metal used as an ornamental surround to the top of a table, tray, shelf or cabinet.

galloon
Braid, lace or ribbon woven from silver, gold or silk threads, used for trimming upholstery, uniforms and sometimes dresses.

Gandhara
Province in Pakistan from which came stone carvings combining Indian and Mediterranean influences. Early examples date from the 2nd and 3rd centuries and depict Buddha in Graeco-Rornan costume. Later examples, usually heads, are made of stucco or terracotta. The sculpture was much collected in Victorian times. Most common items seen today are reliefs, Buddha figures and miniature stupas (shrines).

gaozu
See stem cup.

garden carpet
A Persian carpet design which reflects the layout of a formal garden or Chahar Bagh (four gardens), which is specifically mentioned in the Koran as a feature of Paradise. The earliest surviving examples date from the first half of the 17thC.

garnet
Family of minerals including six varieties of similar red gemstone, namely: pyrope (rhodolite), almandine, grossular, andradite (demantoid), spessartite, and uvarovite. The most common garnets used for jewellery are the very dark red pyrope or Bohemian stones, which are usually rose-cut (see jewel cutting) or, on bead necklaces, naturally faceted, and almandine garnets which are usually cut en cabochon (and known as carbuncles) or emerald-cut.

garniture
Matching set of three, five or seven ornaments, usually vases, for decorative display. A garniture de cheminée is a set for the mantelpiece. The ornaments were originally — at the end of the 17thC -Japanese or chinese export porcelain, or Dutch delft copies, comprising an odd number of baluster vases and covers with an even number of intervening 'beaker' vases of cylindrical or waisted form. Silver versions were made in small numbers in Europe, and in the late 18thC the term was also used to describe clock and candlestick sets. Dressing-table sets are known as garnitures de toilette; a set for a side table as a garniture de table .

gasolier
Decorative gas lighting piece made in the latter half of 19thC of brass or other metal. It resembles a chandelier, with branches holding burners emanating from a central shaft, but is hollow to allow gas to be piped through.

gate-leg table
A type of drop-leaf table with a structure hinged like a gate beneath that pivots out to support the leaves. The gate-leg was introduced in the late 16thC and in common use up until the end of the 18thC.

gather
Blob of molten glass that is collected from the furnace on the end of a blowpipe in order to be blown into shape.

Gauffering
1 Term describing the impresssed decoration on gilded edges of book bindings, applied with heated finishing tools. 2 The term gauffered describes the relief pattern on any textile other than velvet. Velvet decorated in this way is described as stamped velvet.

genre painting
Style of painting linked with the ideals and 'sensibility' of the Victorian middle classes, in which domestic scenes with a moral, sentimental, historical or literary theme were popular.

Georgian style
British 18thC style characterised by the proportions and ornaments of classical architecture, applied universally to buildings, furniture and decorative art forms. Passing styles within the period, including Chinese and gothic, were also accommodated. The Georgian era is divided into two main periods: the early Georgian period, 1720-60, under the reign of George I up to 1727 and George II thereafter, and the late Georgian period, 1760-1800, under the reign of George III. The term 'Georgian style' also sometimes includes the regency period to 1830.

German silver
See nickel silver.

gesso
A form of plaster which can be carved and gilded or painted for use as a decorating medium on furniture. Gesso (pronounced jesso) is a dense mix of powdered chalk and size which hardens on drying. It is built up in layers onto a surface or over a wire framework, or cast into a mould. The material was often used in place of wood for detailed relief work on chairs, mirror frames and pier tables from the mid- 18thC and increasingly in the 19thC.

Gibbons, Grinling
(1648-1721) Dutch-born sculptor who moved to Britain at 19 and became renowned for his carved decorations in wood, marble and stone. His craft was applied to chimney pieces, picture and mirror frames, panelling, tables and cabinet stands. He was appointed master carver in wood to King Charles II, a position he held until the reign of George I. He was commissioned by Sir Christopher Wren to carry out work in St Paul's Cathedral and Hampton Court Palace.

gilding
Liquid gold is a solution of powdered gold leaf and oils containing sulphur. Used on meissen porcelain by 1730, and in Britain from the mid-18thC, it produces a film of metal with a similar effect to that of lustre ware.

Giles, James
(1718-80) British outside decorator who was responsible for some of the finest decoration on worcester and chelsea porcelain. His London studio also decorated opaque white, green and blue glassware with neoclassical designs similar to those found on Giles's work for Worcester.

Gillows
The most successful firm of British 18thC furniture-makers outside London, founded in Lancaster by Robert Gillow (1704-72), a joiner. The company was later renowned for its elegant, well-made, solid but simple pieces in georgian and regency styles, and also for its clock cases. The company appears to be the first British firm to stamp its furniture. The stamped mark 'Gillows' or 'Gillows Lancaster' can usually be seen on the top of drawer fronts. The firm continued to flourish, changing its name to Waring & Gillow Ltd in the early years of the 20thC.

giltwood
Any wood that is gilded, whether with gold paint or gold leaf.

gimmal
A flask made of tinted or transparent glass or stoneware from the 17thC. The flask, designed to hold oil and vinegar, has an interior division to make two separate containers each with its own spout.

gimmal ring
Mid- 15th to 18thC wedding or engagement ring consisting of two or three interlocking hoops which fit together to form one hoop. The setting also splits and joins again to form an ornament, such as a heart or clasped hands.

Gimson, Ernest
(1864-1919) Artist-craftsman and designer, working with furniture, embroidery, metal and plaster. His furniture is traditional with turned legs and rails, spindle backs and rush seats, and was greatly influenced by William morris. He was involved early on in the arts and crafts movement.

girandole
2 An elaborate US made clock, resembling a banjo clock, designed c. 1818 with gilded decorations, including scrolls, festoons and birds. 3 In jewellery, pearl or gem drops suspended in groups of three or more from an earring, pendant or brooch.

gisarme
See polearms.

glacée
Upholsterer's term for cloth with a highly lustrous surface finish.

glaive
See polearms.

Glasgow School
Group of designers and architects centred around the Glasgow School of Art in the late 19thC. Hallmarks of the group's austere version of art nouveau include stylised floral motifs, celtic ornament, painted or inlaid stained glass and applied metalwork ornament on furniture which generally followed straight or gently curved lines. Their work was exhibited widely in Europe, and influenced early European industrial designers, especially in Germany and Austria.

glass
Hard, transparent or translucent substance made from the fusion of silica, such as sand or flint, and an alkali, such as potash or soda. When heated to about 1100°C (2000°F) the ingredients fuse together and become molten. In this state the metal, as it is technically called, can be shaped by blowing, casting, moulding or pressing. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic oxides to the frit.

glasses, drinking
The shape, size and decoration of drinking glasses, particularly British ones, often indicate their date as well as purpose.

Glastonbury chair
19thC term for a type of folding chair dating from the late 16thC, said to be based on one used by the Abbot of Glastonbury, and reproduced in the 19thC.

glaze
In ceramics, a vitreous (glass-like) coating which gives a decorative and impervious finish. Glazes can be matt or glossy, soft or hard, smoother textured, of varying opacity and colour. They are composed of a glass-forming ingredient (usually silica), a flux (to reduce the melting point of the silica), and alumina to help fix the glaze to the clay body. Glazing takes place either before firing (known as green or raw-glazing), or after the first, biscuit firing when the body has been hardened off. Lead glaze was perhaps the earliest manufactured glaze, known from 1700 bc, and using ground lead or lead oxide as the flux agent. The lead lent greater translucency and depth of colour to the glaze. It was used on earthenware and soft-paste porcelain in Europe until substituted in the 19thC by less toxic flux materials such as borax. See salt-glazed stoneware, tin-glazed earthenware. A smear glaze can be a deliberate, very light glaze applied to the marble-like parian ware, for example, or an unintentional coating of leftover glaze from a previous firing.

globe
Sphere showing a map of the world (terrestrial globe) or of the heavens (celestial globe), that is usually mounted on an axis and can be turned.

gnomon
The projecting arm of a sundial, also known as the style. It casts a shadow, the tip of which points to markings round the rim of the dial that show the time. For accurate reading, the angle of the gnomon must be related to the latitude in which the sundial is set.

Gobelins
tapestry works established in 1662 in Paris and still in operation today. Gobelins produced tapestries and carpets in traditional, Classical styles taken from designs, or cartoons, by eminent painters, such as Raffaello Raphael. In the mid to late 19thC, Gobelins produced tapestry portraits for royalty and panels for Parisian theatres. The quality of the work declined with the introduction of chemical, aniline dyes in the late 19thC and the use of these was suspended in the early 20thC. Gustave Geoffroi, director 1919-25, set a new policy of commissioning cartoons from 20thC artists, such as Jean Weber, and of using improved synthetic dyes.

goblet
Drinking vessel usually with a large bowl on a stem and foot.

Godwin, Edward William
(1833-86) British architect, designer and member of the 19thC aesthetic movement. His light, graceful art furniture was often made from ebonised wood, showed Japanese influence in its simple lines, and was easily mass-produced. Art Furniture, a catalogue of his designs, was influential, especially in the USA.

gold
The most versatile precious metal of all. It is more ductile than any other metal, with the capacity of being drawn out into a fine wire, and so malleable that it can be beaten into a leaf 4 millionths of an inch (a 10 thousandth of a millimetre) thick. Gold is resistant to corrosion, and to the action of solvents. Pure, 24 carat gold is too soft and heavy to work on its own, and so it is usually alloyed with other metals such as copper. In 14 carat gold, 14 parts of gold are mixed with 10 parts of other metal; the finest alloys are 18 and 22 carat. The colour of the gold varies according to the type and quantity of metal used in the alloy. Copper lends a reddish tinge, silver a hint of pale green; a combination of copper and silver results in a brighter yellow than pure gold. 18 carat white gold is an alloy of 25 per cent platinum and 75 per cent pure gold.

Gold anchor period
In 1770, the Chelsea factory was sold to derby, although production did not cease until 1784. The products of the two factories merged stylistically into what became known as Chelsea-Derby ware

gorget
See armour.

Goss, William
(1833-1906) Staffordshire potter renowned for his crested ware and porcelain ornaments. Goss's Falcon Pottery was founded in 1858 to produce dressing-table ornaments and jewellery such as brooches and pendants, in parian porcelain. He began marketing parian figures, and the crested wares which became popular holiday souvenirs, in the 1890s.

Gothic Revival
and from 1760 Gothic-style tracery appeared on work by Thomas chippendale and others. The 19thC Gothic Revival started with poorly executed and over-elaborate Gothic motifs on European furniture and metalwork, dubbed by the Victorians as abbotsford style and known as Troubadour style in France and Dantesque in Italy. British architect Augustus pugin reacted against this excess in the 1830s, with more authentic methods of construction and decoration. Later furniture designers who followed his lead include William burges, William morris, Bruce talbert, and Charles eastlake.

gouache
Water-soluble artist's paint in which the colour pigments are mixed with a chalky white medium and gum to produce an opaque paint (as opposed to the translucency of watercolour paint). Gouache was widely used for miniatures as well as for larger paintings - sometimes in conjunction with watercolours.

gouge carving
Carved decoration consisting of shallow depressions scooped out with a gouge. It is found mainly on late 16th and 17th-century British oak furniture.

Goupy, Marcel
(1886-1980) French art nouveau and art deco artist and designer of glass and ceramics who designed for various factories such as st louis. His work includes glassware decorated with stylised flowers in enamel colours, and both earthenware and porcelain table services decorated with birds and stylised flowers.

goût Grec
See Louis XVI style.

gout stool
A footstool introduced in the late 18thC, designed to ease the discomfort of gout sufferers.

Graal glass
See orrefors.

Graham, George
(1673-1751) 18thC clock and watch-maker who brought an unprecedented high degree of accuracy to longcase clocks. He made few clocks, but many watches. His introduction of the deadbeat escapement in 1715 replaced the less accurate anchor escapement, and his mercury pendulum in 1726 helped control the pendulum's vulnerability to heat and cold. He also developed the cylinder escapement for watches, which led to slimmer-cased designs. Graham married the niece of clock-maker Thomas tompion, and was in partnership with him in London, continuing the serial numbers initiated by Tompion.

graining
1 The patterned edge markings on a coin, also known as milling. The practice of graining or edge-lettering (as seen on the modern £i coin) was usual in Britain from 1622 to guard against clipping. 2 The decorative, painted imitation of wood grain or marble onto furniture. Graining was acceptable in the 18th and 19th centuries but was associated with cheap, low-grade furniture during the late Victorian period.

gramophone
A type of mechanical music player patented in the USA by Emile Berliner in 1887, using flat discs rather than the cylinders of Edison's phonograph. Early 20thC models used a large, trumpet-shaped horn to amplify the sound, and by the 1920s gramophones were housed in a case.

grand feu colours
See high-temperature colours.

Grand Rapids furniture
Inexpensive, mass-produced furniture of art nouveau, renaissance Revival and other styles made at Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA, c. 1850-1930 and exported to Europe.

Grand Tour
European tour made by young, wealthy 18thC men, following completion of a formal education. The aim was to absorb the culture, history and contemporary art of the great European cities.

grandfather chair
High-backed, open armchair, dating from c. 1850.

grandfather clock
See longcase

gravity clock
Clock powered by the falling of its own weight. A type which is suspended on a chain is known as a ball clock, a rack clock is one mounted on a toothed rack. An inclined plane clock has its movement encased in a canister which rolls down a slope marked with the days of the week.

Gray, Eileen
(1878-1976) Irish architect and furniture designer who became the best European lacquer artist of the period. Gray made decorative ceramics, including, domestic earthenware, as well as wood, lacquer and modernist tubular steel furniture, characterised by plain, linear forms.

Great Exhibition
An international Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, to give its full title - held in 1851 at the original Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London.

Greatbach William
(1735-1813) English potter who made transfer-printed cream-coloured wares and fruit-shaped tablewares, glazed by Josiah wedgwood for whom he worked 1788-1807.

greave
See armour.

greybeard
See bellarmine.

griffin
Mythological creature with an eagle's head and wings and a lion's body, used as a decorative motif during the renaissance period.

grille
1 Brass latticework used as panels in the doors of cabinet furniture, often replacing glass during the late 18th and early 18th centuries. 2 See VINAIGRETTE.

grisaille, en
A painting technique used on ceramics and glass using shades of grey and black to imitate either sculpted stone relief, or engravings as on Chinese jesuit ware c. 1720-50.

groat
British silver coin with a face value of 4d(1.66p). Its name derives from the word 'great', because of the coin's size compared with the smaller penny. Groats were mainly used 1350-1560, but were issued before and after these dates. The Britannia groat, for example, was issued in the 19thC. This was the same size as the silver 3d but thicker and displayed the face of Britannia.

Groove-and-tongue
Carved decoration found on items of furniture like concave fluting partially filled with a convex moulding.

Gropius, Walter
See bauhaus.

gros point
A large cross stitch usually in wool on a canvas ground. Point is French for 'needle stitch'.

grotesque
Extravagant decorative motif in which figures of humans, mythological beasts, birds, animals and sphinxes are used at the whim of the artist. The design elements are loosely linked by motifs such as intertwining scrolls, strapwork or foliage. Grotesque decoration was used in virtually every medium of the decorative arts -carved, inlaid or painted on furniture; engraved, chased or modelled on silver; woven into beauvais tapestries; and painted on maiolica. It was particularly popular during the renaissance and Rococo periods, as well as later in the eclectic high Victorian period and in Germany at the same time. The word stems from the Italian grotte, the subterranean ruins where ancient Roman motifs of this type were discovered during the Renaissance.

Groult, André
(1884-1967) French interior decorator and designer of art deco furniture. Groult's furniture features curved lines, harmonising colours and fine materials.

ground
Base or background colour.

guard chain
A long chain, usually of gold, and originally one from which a watch and various other objects were suspended. Guard chains were popular in Britain from the early 19thC until the early 20thC.

gueridon
Stand for holding a candelabrum or torch, a tray or a basket. Some early gueridons were in the form of a black human figure - now known as blackamoors - and were imported to Britain from Holland, Italy and France in the latter half of the 17thC. The term has come to be commonly used for small occasional tables associated with the Louis XV and Louis XVI periods, with a frieze drawer and platform. interlacing circles derived from Greek and Roman architecture and used to decorate plain or moulded surfaces on furniture. See decorative motifs.

guinea
A British gold coin first struck under Charles II in 1663 and so called because some of the bullion gold used to make the first pieces was imported from Guinea by the Africa Company. The provenance mark of an elephant or elephant and castle was the Africa Company symbol, and is found on some of the coins. After some fluctuation, the value of the coin settled at 21 shillings (£1.05). The last golden guinea was struck in 1813, but the term denoted 21 shillings until the introduction of decimal currency. Guineas with a pointed shield on the reverse side, issued 1787-99, are often known as spade guineas.

guls
The dominant repeating motif on weavings of the nomadic Turkoman tribes of central Asia. Gul designs vary greatly, but are usually based on an octagon shape containing stylised flowers -gul is the Farsi word for 'flower'. The motifs are thought by some writers to be tribal emblems, and therefore provide a clue to a carpet's origin.

Gumley, John
(1691-1727) Cabinet-maker and manufacturer of mirrors and chandeliers. Gumley was appointed royal cabinet-maker to King George I in 1715.

gun money
A large, base metal coinage supposedly made from melted-down cannons. It was issued in Ireland by King James II following his exile from England in 1688.

gunmetal
Strong alloy of copper and tin developed in the 19thC to make guns and also cast to make domestic hollow-ware, candlesticks and furniture ornaments.

gutta percha
Rubbery material made from the resin of an East Indian tree, used in the late 19thC for furniture decorations, dolls and golf balls.

Hafner ware
See tiles.

Haig, Thomas
(c. 1727-1803) Cabinet-maker, upholsterer and business partner of Thomas chippendale. After Chippendale's death in 1779, Haig continued in partnership with Chippendale's son Thomas until 1796.

halberd
See polearms.

half-hunter
See hunter-cased WATCH.

halfpenny
See penny.

half-tester
Bed with a canopy or tester, supported by the headboard or posts, that covers a quarter to a third of the bed area. Half-testers were used in late medieval times and revived in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries.

hall chair
Hard-seated single chair designed for the entrance hall, dating from the early 18thC.

hall stand
Stand for hats, coats and umbrellas introduced in the early 19thC. Some are very ornate, especially those made wholly or partly in cast iron. In the 1860s, bentwood versions became popular and were common in hotels, restaurants and offices.

Hallett, William
(c. 1707-81) Early Georgian cabinet-maker. He became a business partner in the cabinet-making firm vile & cobb in 1752.

hallmarks
The Maker's or Sponsor's Mark, introduced 1363, identifies the silversmith, originally by means of a symbol suggestive of his name, his products or location. From the 17thC, initials or the first two letters of the craftsman's name were more common. The Duty Mark or Sovereign's Head occurs on silverware 1784-1890, when a new silver tax was imposed; the head of the reigning monarch denotes duty paid. The hallmark of britannia standard silver applied to all silver produced 1697-1720. The Lion's Head Erased appears on Britannia standard silver; on London silver it replaced the Leopard's Head, but was used as well as the town mark by other assay offices.

Hammered
1 Usual method of hand-striking a coin design onto blank metal using a pair of dies. This method was used until the mid- 17thC. 2 Metal articles shaped by hand, a process used since ancient times. The metal is gently hammered into shape over a wooden block or leather pad. See planishing, raising. 3 See martelé.

Hampelmann
See jumping jack.

Hancock, Robert
(1731-1817) Staffordshire-born engraver whose work was the principal source of transfer-printed designs on bow,worcester and caughley porcelain, and probably also on battersea enamels.

hand cooler
A small, round or egg-shaped piece of glass, crystal or stone, such as marble or agate, used from the 18th to late19th centuries to keep the hands cool. Most were about 1½-2 in. (40-50 mm) across, some made into miniature paperweights, and others intricately carved by glass houses such as baccarat and clichy.

hand warmer
Portable container for hot metal, coals or charcoal which was used to keep the hands warm. Most examples have an outer case of pierced metalwork, such as copper or brass, surrounding the inner container and heat source.

hands
See clock hands.

hanger
Short general-purpose sword used by huntsmen, horsemen and sailors in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Harache, Pierre I
(fl. 1682-98) huguenot silversmith who, together with his son, Pierre II (fl. 1698-1717), specialised in silver figurative ornaments, decorated with chasing, EMBOSSING, GADROONING, PIERCED and cut-card work. Their marks, styles and designs are very similar to one another.

hard metal
See britannia metal.

hard-paste
See porcelain.

hardstone
Gemstone whose colour and formation makes it suitable for carving objects such as urns and also for use in decorative techniques such as inlaid decoration, mosaic and cameo. Typical examples include agate, lapis lazuli and malachite.

hardwood
A botanical term for wood taken from a broad-leaved tree. Hardwoods are generally harder than softwoods, although not necessarily stronger, and include some of the finest furniture timbers such as mahogany, oak and walnut.

hare's furglaze
See temmoku.

harewood
Sycamore pr maple wood which is stained with iron oxide to give a green or silvery finish, and also known as silverwood. It was used from the 17thC and especially popular in the second half of the 18thC. The San Domingo satinwood, a bright yellow wood that turns grey when it has seasoned, is also known as harewood.

harlequin set
A set of objects such as cups and saucers of a common style, but each piece decorated differently. The term is also applied to originally unrelated objects-of furniture, for example - which have been 'matched up' to make a set.

harlequin table
A form of pembroke table with a small box-like structure concealed in the central body which springs open to reveal a nest of drawers and compartments.

Harrison, John
(1693-1776) A Lincolnshire-born carpenter who became an innovative clock-maker. Most clock-makers used metal for mechanical parts of a clock, trying different methods of lubrication to make them more reliable and smooth-running. Harrison was unique in questioning the basic material, and his early clocks have wooden wheels made of the naturally oily lignum vitae. He also made the first chronometer, in a bid to win a reward offered by Parliament in 1714 for a timekeeper accurate enough to be used for navigation at sea, and was finally granted the £20,000 prize in 1773 thanks to the support of King George III. In 1728 Harrison introduced the first gridiron pendulum with built-in temperature compensation.

hatchli rugs
See ensi.

Haviland
See limoges.

haystack
A conical 19thC measure used in Irish taverns with a stepped neck, and usually of pewter; English versions are slightly different in form and of brass or copper. They are also known as haycocks or harvesters.

Heal, Sir Ambrose
(1872-1959) Artist-craftsman and furniture-maker and designer. He joined Heal & Son, the London-based family furniture-making business, in 1893 and designed all of its furniture from 1896 to the 1930s. Early pieces show the influence of the prevalent arts and crafts movement, and his range of stylish but durable furniture at reasonable prices had a considerable influence on furniture design in the early part of the 20thC. Towards the end of his working life (c.1939), Heal experimented with new materials, including steel and aluminium.

heartwood
The hard inner core and oldest part of a tree. It is denser and darker than the outer layers of sapwood, and does not contain living cells; as the tree grows, the area of heartwood increases.

heat treatment
Process of changing or eliminating the colour of a natural or synthetic gemstone by controlled heating.

Hennell family
Silver craftsmen working in a London-based family business, established by David Hennell in 1735. Over 30 personal silver marks were registered by the family until the last son, Samuel, died in 1837. A second Hennell firm was established in 1809 by David's grandson, Robert (b.1769) which operated until 1887.

Hepplewhite, George
(1786) British neoclassical cabinet-maker whose pattern book The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Guide illustrated prevailing fashions in a way that was easily interpreted by ordinary cabinet-makers.

herati pattern
Common floral motif used on Oriental carpets, and said to originate in the region of Herat, Iran. Typically it consists of a stylised floral rosette arranged in two-way or four-way symmetry, enclosed within a diamond shape. The motif is also known as the mahi or fish pattern in the carpet trade because of its resemblance to fishes, or more recently, as the in-and-out pattern.

hibachi
Japanese term for a charcoal burner, usually of bronze or cast iron, and used for warming rooms.

high-temperature colours
Certain metal oxide pigments that can withstand the high firing temperatures used to fuse them onto an unglazed ceramic body. They are used as underglaze colours painted onto the biscuit body of porcelain, or painted onto the raw glaze (known as inglaze) of tin-glazed earthenware before the glaze firing. Colours include green from copper, purple from manganese, yellow from antimony and blue from cobalt and are also known as grand feu colours.

hilt
The hand grip of a sword or dagger. Until the 15thC, swords usually had a straight hilt with a crossguard and pommel. Later hilts are more elaborate, in terms of both protection and decoration. See sword.

hinge
Folding metal joint which allows doors and lids to open and shut; it can be decorative as well as functional. Before the 16thC, pin hinges were used on boarded and panelled furniture (see joining): a loose pin or barrel acts as a pivot which is pushed through corresponding holes in the two parts to be joined. The wire hinge, consisting of two interlocking loops of wire, was introduced in the 16thC, and is often seen on 17thC coffers. From the beginning of the 18thC, hinges tend to be concealed. A butt hinge is sunk into the edge of the surface so that only a narrow line of metal is visible externally. And in a blind hinge, the pivoting pin and tube are set within the hinge plate so that they are flush with the surface. The join can be further disguised by a rule joint - a hinged joint used on screens or the fold-down leaves of tables so that there is no gap in the outer surface when the leaves are down. On lidded metal and ceramic objects, a book hinge with a rounded back like the spine of a book may be seen, sometimes with the ends of the pin concealed by ornamental caps, and box hinge is found on some stoneware jugs with silver or pewter lids and mouth rims.

hipped
Cabinet-making term for a cabriole leg which extends to or rises above the level of the seat as opposed to ending at the base of the seat rail, and which is often ornately carved from the knee upwards.

Hirado ware
Sparsely painted blue and white porcelain made at the Mikawachi kilns for the lords of Hirado, an island near arita, Japan. Most pieces are likely to be 19thC, although production may have been as early as the late 17thC.

Hispano-Moresque ware
Spanish TIN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE that used techniques and designs brought by the Moorish invaders in the 8thC. The most notable wares are decorated with lustre introduced from the 13thC and used especially at Malaga, and in the Valencia area in the 15thC. The ware inspired the development of Italian maiolica and was arguably the first pottery of any artistic value to be produced in Europe since the ancient civilisations.

Höchst
German ceramics factory operating 1746-96. It began making faience useful wares, painted in enamel colours, then produced hard-paste porcelain from 1750, concentrating on Rococo-style tablewares and statuettes, notably by Johann Peter Melchior (1742-1825).

Hoffmann, Josef
(1870-1956) See wiener werkstatte.

Hogarth, William
(1697-1764) British painter, caricaturist and silver engraver who depicted the social classes of Georgian times in works such as A Rake's Progress and Marriage a la Mode.

Holbein carpets
Family of Turkish carpets incorporating various octagonal motifs, named after the German painter Hans Holbein the Younger, who depicted such carpets in his paintings. The designs actually date from the second half of the 15thC, predating Holbein's paintings by nearly a century. The term embraces small-pattern Holbeins with rows of alternating lozenges and octagons, originating in the Ushak region of western Anatolia, and large-pattern Holbeins with two or three large octagons, woven in Turkey.

holey dollar
Australia's famous first coin - a Spanish piece of eight with the centre cut out and counter-marked, and a face value of 25p (5 shillings). Holey dollars were issued in New South Wales in 1813 and withdrawn 1829. The pieces cut from the centres formed coins in their own right known as dumps and with a face value of 6.25p (1s 3d).

Holland, Henry
(1745-1806) Late Georgian architect and furniture designer whose work anticipated that of French empire style.

hollow-ware
Term for gold, silver, pewter and ceramics ware that is hollow, such as bowls and drinking vessels - as opposed to flatware.

holly
Hard, white wood with a close grain and fine texture, often stained a different colour. Holly was used for small pieces of inlaid decoration in solid oak and walnut in the 16th and early 17th centuries and for marquetry from the late 17th to late 18th centuries.

honey gilding
See gilding.

hood
1 Removable part of a clock which hides the mechanism and surrounds the dial. 2 Semi-circular top of a mirror frame or a cabinet.

Hooke, Dr Robert
See tompion, Thomas.

Hope, Thomas
(1769-1831) Dutch-born author-traveller, collector, furniture designer and patron of the arts. He moved to England in 1795 with a huge collection of antique vases and sculpture. His Household Furniture and Interior Decoration, published 1807, became a 'bible' for Regency style containing designs for solid pieces of furniture, based on Classical lines and decorated with symbolic motifs taken from Ancient Greek and Egyptian architecture.

Horoldt, J.G.
See meissen.

horse dressing glass
See cheval MIRROR.

horse-brass
Flat or slightly curved brass plate with pierced, engraved or stamped decoration designed to ward off evil, advertise the trade of the horse's owner or to bring good luck. Horse-brasses were familiar harness trappings in Britain in the 19thC; examples before 1860 are rare, although similar badges were used in the Middle Ages. Most examples seen today are reproductions.

horsehair
Coarse stuffing from the mane and tail of horses used to upholster seat furniture from the mid-18thC, and widely used throughout the 19thC.

horseshoe table
Table introduced in the `8thC which is shaped like a segment of a ring, sometimes with rounded flaps at either end for extending the surface area. There is often a central pivoted device to move bottles to any point of the radius.

Horta, Victor
(1861-1947) Belgian art nouveau architect, teacher and designer. His interiors and furniture are characterised by sinuous lines and contrasting areas of space, and by the use of wrought iron, curved metalwork and inlaid decoration. They were much copied throughout Europe.

hotel
See budai.

Huguenots
Protestant refugees from France, known for their highly skilled craftsmanship and who influenced decorative arts in Europe from the end of the 17thC. In 1685, Louis XIV of France revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had allowed French Protestants religious freedom of worship. As a consequence, Britain and other European countries received a flood of Huguenots fleeing persecution. Many of these were cabinet-makers, tapestry and cloth weavers or silversmiths, and their work was of the highest quality. They introduced several new cabinet-making techniques, including marquetry, veneering, japanning and gesso work. Many of the finest silks from the major 18thC spitalfields silk factories in London were the work of Huguenot designer James Leman. Particularly influential was the silverwork produced by Huguenot craftsmen such as David willaume. It is generally solid, decorated with cut-card work, strap work, intricate engraving and the application of cast ornaments in human and animal form. The distinctive Huguenot styles gradually merged with native styles from around 1725. The refugees also brought with them several new vessels, including the soup tureen and the ecuelle.

humpen
Large German 17th-18thC drinking vessels. Glass examples were almost cylindrical in shape, often lidded and decorated with enamel. Reichsadlerhumpen, or adlerglas, carry the double eagle of the Holy Roman Empire, with the armorial bearings of 56 imperial families on its wings. Kurfiirstenhumpen are painted with pictures of the Holy Roman Emperor and his Electors, and others, called Apostelhumpen, with religious scenes.

Hungarian stitch
See bargello.

hunter-cased watch
Pocket watch with a hinged metal cover over the dial. These were first used, from c. 1840, in the hunting field, as the unprotected glass of an open-faced watch in a rider's waistcoat pocket was liable to be knocked and broken. A half-hunter case has an opening cut in the centre of the lid with an additional chapter ring engraved around it to allow the hands to be read without exposing the full dial.

Huygens, Christian
See pendulum.

hyacinth
See zircon.

Hyalith
Opaque scarlet or black bohemian glass, often with gilding, developed in the early 19thC, probably in imitation of Wedgwood's rosso antico and basaltes ware. It was used mainly for ornaments.

ice glass
art glass with a frosted outer surface that resembles cracked ice. It is made by rolling a partly blown glass object over powdered glass, and then reheating it and blowing it into shape, or by plunging white-hot glass into cold water so that it becomes veined with tiny cracks. Ice glass, also known as frosted glass, crackled glass and verre craquelé, was made in 16thC Venice and revived by British glass-maker Apsley pellatt c. 1840.

ichiraku
See netsuke.

Imari
Distinctively decorated Japanese porcelain made at arita from the late 17thC and shipped from the port of Imari. The panelled decoration, dominated by underglaze blue, iron-red enamel and gilding, with occasional additions of black, green, aubergine and yellow enamels, was based on local textiles. The designs, also known as Japan patterns, were copied in Europe throughout the 18thC. In the 19thC Imari-inspired patterns were imitated at derby and spode.

imbricated ornament
Carved fish-scale decoration found on furniture.

Impasto
1 White or coloured liquid clay slip applied thickly to a ceramic body and then worked so that it is slightly raised from the body before glazing. 2 The term also applies to the thickness of paint in oil painting.

in-and-out pattern
See herati PATTERN.

Ince & Mayhew
(fl.1759-1802) English cabinet-makers William Ince and John Mayhew worked together from 1759 onwards. Their early ornate work in Rococo style later developed along more restrained neoclassical lines. The partners published The Universal System of Household Furniture, which contained over 300 designs similar to those of Thomas chippendale. Ince and Mayhew also built furniture based on designs by Robert Adam.

incised decoration
Decoration that is cut or carved into the surface with a sharp metal point.

Incised triangle period
(1744-9) Little survives, but the ware was lighter and more translucent than that of Bow, with a glassy finish.

inclined plane clock
See gravity CLOCK.

incuse
A design impressed into the surface of a coin to create an intaglio effect rather than a relief design.

Indian jail carpets
Large, heavily woven pile carpets produced in northern-Indian jail workshops in the 19thC. The industry thrived in response to growing Western demand after examples were shown at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851. The designs were based on earlier Persian styles. Flat-weave dhurries were also woven in Indian jails - in far larger quantities than the pile rugs, as they were easier to make.

indianische Blumen
German for 'Indian flowers' - a term for painted floral decoration on ceramics inspired by Oriental and more specifically kakiemon, originals. The designs were introduced at meissen in the 1720s, and imitated by other European factories including chelsea. From the 1740s indianische Blumen were superseded by deutsche blumen (German flowers).

inglaze
See high-temperature colours.

ingrain carpets
British flat-weave carpets that are reversible, having the same pattern appearing in a different colour on either side. They are also known as double-cloth carpets, and have been woven since c. 1824 at many factories, particularly kidderminster, but developed mainly in the USA from 1850.

inkstand
Container for writing implements, including inkpot, pounce box, sealing wax, handbell and quill pens, in use from the 16thC onwards. The implements either fit into a box or rest on a matching tray. Standish is the common term for pre- 18thC silver inkstands.

inlaid decoration
Technique used on solid wood furniture, in which details of coloured woods, ivory, metal or mother-of-pearl are set into cut-out recesses some ?in (3 mm) deep. First used in 15thC Italy, the technique reached France, Holland, Germany and Britain the following century, and was popular on Elizabethan and early Stuart oak and walnut furniture. Designs were fairly simple - geometric, or using flower and vase motifs. As veneer and marquetry techniques were perfected, inlaying died out.

inro
Small container designed to hang from the belt, worn by Japanese men from the 14thC. The original purpose was to hold a seal- the word is literally translated as 'seal basket' -but inro were later used for other personal effects such as medicine or tobacco, and by the 18thC had become purely decorative. Inro are usually of lacquer on wood, typically 3-5 in (7.5-12.5 cm) long, shallow and oval, and made up of several close-fitting compartments. See netsuke.

intaglio
Decorative technique (or object made by the technique) of incising a figure or design into the surface of hards tones (as in seals) and glass (see engraving, wheel) especially, and also ceramics and metalwork. Intaglio is the opposite of cameo work, in that the design, not the background, is cut away to give an image in relief.

intarsia
An Italian term for pictorial MARQUETRY or INLAID DECORATION found on 15th and 16thC Italian panelling and furniture. Various woods, tortoiseshell, metals and ivory were chosen for colour and texture to create a realistic architectural perspective, or a symmetrical still-life group of objects such as musical or precision instruments.

interior painting
Decorative technique which involves painting a watercolour picture on the inside of a bottle using an angled brush inserted through the neck. It was particularly popular for decorating snuff bottles.

in-the-white
See blank.

investment casting
See lost wax.

iridescent glass
Glassware that appears to be rainbow-coloured when viewed from certain angles and in certain lights. Ancient glass which has been buried often develops a natural iridescence due to attack by minerals in the soil. The same effect has been created artificially by treating glassware with metallic oxides.

Irish glass
Heavy, ornate lead crystal, produced from c. 1780 in Belfast, Cork, Dublin and Waterford following the removal of a ban from exporting glass from Ireland and to avoid the high taxes payable in England. English factories at stourbridge, Sunderland and St Helens have recently been identified as the source of much of the glass previously described as Irish.

iron chimney
See fireback.

ironstone china
See stone china.

Islamic style
Ornamental style applied throughout the decorative arts both in Middle-Eastern Islamic countries, North Africa and Spain. It is in abstract style - often colourful, symmetrical patterns with inscriptions or kufic script - because the Koran forbids the representation of Allah, the human form and animals. In 15thC Spain following the Moorish (Islamic) occupation, Islamic style was combined with Christian gothic in the Mudejar style.

Isnik pottery
Coarse-bodied Turkish earthenware, either coated with a white slip or tin glazed, decorated with bright, high-temperature colours under a glassy quartz glaze. Bright blue, green, turquoise and an impasto red were typical, and blue and white Chinese-inspired wares were also made. Production centred on Isnik (ancient Nicaea), 60 miles (95 km) south-east of Istanbul, from the 15thC onwards. Quality declined in the 17thC, but the style was copied in Europe from the late 19thC.

isochronous motion
A clock-making term meaning equally beating, that is, each beat occupying an equal period of time. A pendulum is naturally isochronous, while a balance wheel only becomes so when linked with a balance spring.

istoriato
tin-glazed earthenware, particularly Italian maiolica, with a scene from a historical, mythological or biblical story. Literally translated as 'with a story in it', istoriato was introduced in the early 16thC. It represented a move from the production of purely practical wares to articles designed for display.

ivory
Hard, dentine tissue from the tusks of elephants and other mammals. From the earliest times ivory was used in China for carvings and in Japan for netsuke figures, as a base for miniature paintings and for decoration. In the West, ivory has been used for ornaments, jewellery and furniture. Its use declined in the 15thC but interest was revived in the 18thC, especially in the Victorian era. See morse ivory.

ivory glass
Cream-coloured glass wheel-engraved or moulded to look like carved ivory. The engraving was treated with a coloured stain to highlight details of the design, and some pieces were then decorated with GILDING or ENAMELLING. The technique was applied to various ornamental wares, some in Oriental styles, and was a speciality of Thomas webb & Sons in the late 19thC.

Ivrene
Ivory-coloured, slightly iridescent art glass developed by the designer Frederick carder during the 1920s. The colour was created by adding the minerals feldspar and cryolite to molten glass, and the iridescence was achieved by spraying the finished object with tin chloride and then reheating it.