d
Pre-decimalisation abbreviation for penny.

dagger
Short, pointed, bladed weapon usually double-edged for thrusting, parrying and stabbing.

daguerreotype
The first practicable photographic process, invented by the French painter and theatrical designer Jacques Louis Daguerre (1789-1851) in 1839. It produced a positive image, formed of tiny globules of mercury, on a silver-coated copper plate. The daguerreotype could only be reproduced by being rephotographed, and exposures took up to 30 minutes. It was eventually superseded by the calotype process.

daisho
The term for a matching pair of Japanese samurai swords or sword and dagger, popular from the 15thC, made up of the words dai (long) and sho (short).

damascening
Process of setting fine pieces of contrasting metals into a metal body, such as the blade of a sword or a casket, for decoration. The technique was originally developed in Damascus in the Near East and was adopted in Europe in the 17thC. Gold, silver or copper wires were inserted into fine grooves cut into an iron, brass or bronze body and then hammered into the surface. European craftsmen tended to apply the decorative metal superficially on a crosshatched or 'toothed' surface which easily became worn away. This method was known as 'counterfeit' or 'false' damascening.

damask
A reversible fabric used for table linen, curtains and upholstery. Damask was originally woven in silk and later in linen, wool and man- made fibres. Its characteristic appearance is due to the upper and lower surfaces of the same weave forming the pattern and tonal variation. Damask with silver, gold or coloured metallic threads running through it is known as damassin. Most damask, coloured red or plum, was imported from Italy until the late 17thC, when production began in Britain. Red and blue damask was popular for window curtains and upholstery throughout the Georgian period. The Dutch pioneered linen damask for luxury tablecloths and napkins in the 15thC, but from the 17thC, Germany and Ireland became increasingly important centres.

darned netting
See filet.

Daum
Glass factory run by brothers Auguste (1853-1909) and Antonin (1864-1930) Daum in 1875 in Nancy, France, and known for art nouveau and art deco vases and mushroom-shaped lamps.

davenport
A small desk, usually with a sloping writing surface and four drawers set sideways into the case beneath. The first record of the design is of a desk made for a Captain Davenport, probably for use at sea, in the late 18thC. There are many variations of the basic style.

Davenport
Porcelain and earthenware factory founded by John Davenport at Longport, Staffordshire, in 1794. bone china was introduced c. 1800, and the tea services which often closely imitated derby in decoration. Ornamental articles, however, were more individual to Davenport, featuring both monochrome and multicoloured landscapes and skilfully painted flowers and fruits. Production declined from the 1870s and the factory closed in 1887.

day bed
A term known from the 16thC for an upholstered couch or sofa with a sloped backrest at one or both ends used for reclining on during the day.

de Lamerie, Paul
(1688-1751) Dutch silversmith who became the leading London silversmith of his time, and who, in 1716, was appointed goldsmith to King George I. De Lamerie's early work from 1713 includes domestic silverware in queen anne and huguenot styles. In the 1730s, he launched a more flamboyant Rococo style, especially in large cast and embossed pieces. In the 1740s he returned to more restrained decoration. His work includes flatware, wrought silver items and wine cisterns.

de Morgan, William
(1839-1917) Leading British ceramics designer whose work was inspired by William morris, with whom he set up a pottery at Merton Abbey, London. De Morgan's most characteristic work includes his early tiles and pottery with lustre decoration and ceramics influenced by hispano-moresque colours and designs. He also ran a studio pottery in Fulham, London, from 1888 to 1907.

De Stijl
Radical early 20thC Dutch design group of artists and architects, founded by architect Theo van Doesburg, 1917. The group had a lasting influence on 20thC design, partly through its connection with the German bauhaus school, where van Doesburg lectured, and also through the success of abstract painter Piet Mondrian (1872-1944). Mondrian's paintings, using blocks of primary colour and straight lines, epitomised the group's aim of producing revolutionary art. The angular, sculptural, painted-wood 'Red Blue' chair of architect-designer Gerrit rietveld, who joined De Stijl in 1918, sums up the group's challenge of the accepted early 20thC design principles of simplicity, fitness for purpose and logical construction.

deaccession
The sale of an item or items that were originally donated to an institution such as a museum or gallery in order to raise funds.

deal
Pine and other soft coniferous woods used for the carcass of furniture or for cheap country furniture. The name is from the Dutch deel (part of), as the wood for a carcass is sawn into sections.

decanter
Glass bottle with matching stopper used for serving wine at the table, and for spirits.

Deck, Joseph-Théodore
(1823-91) French ceramics artist noted for his brightly coloured earthenware and naturalistic motifs inspired by Japanese, Chinese, Turkish and Egyptian art. In 1861 he introduced his bleu de Deck - a turquoise glaze. During the 1870s Deck produced JAPONAISERIE' style plates and vases, and in the 1880s worked in porcelain using flambÉ glazes. In 1887 Deck became administrator at sevres.

Decorchement, Francois
(1880-1971) French glass artist who produced art nouveau and art deco decorative wares and was a leading exponent of translucent pÂte DE VERRE glaSS.

dejeuner
See cabaret.

Delft
The centre for tin-glazed earthenware in Holland from the mid- 16th to mid-18th centuries, which profoundly influenced the course of European ceramics. Delft potters and decorators finally established the move away from Italian maiolica styles and colours towards the blue and white colour schemes and decorative techniques of chinese export porcelain. Factories elsewhere in Europe followed suit. By the mid-17thC, Delft was making vases, plaques, tiles for wall panels, house and shop signs, and table services. The addition of a lead glaze, known as kwaart, enhanced the brilliance of the colours and gave a glossier finish closer to that of Chinese porcelain than achieved on English delftware. In the 17thC enamel colours brought IMARI-style decoration and the FAMILLE-verte palette. Delft noir used polychrome colours on a black ground. Delft doré, a Japanese-style decoration in red, blue and gold, was introduced in the 1720s Gradually, an individual Dutch style emerged, incorporating landscapes based on the paintings of contemporary Dutch artists, and Oriental designs were adapted to vases and ornamental ware in typically European shapes. The rise of meissen and sÈvres, and the emergence of English creamware, contributed to Delft's decline by the end of the 18thC. The industry was revived in 1876, producing blue and white wares, lustreware and a product known as 'New Delftware'

delftware
The name given to British TIN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE. Following the Dutch lead, British maiolica in the Italian style was introduced in the mid to late 16thC, principally at Southwark and Lambeth in London. But it was the emulation of the delft approach to Oriental styles, with Dutch-style landscapes, and from 1690, the use of a second, lead or kwaart glaze, that characterised delftware. Barrel mugs, jugs, wine bottles, chargers and bowls were typical products. The body of English delftware was softer, the finish less glossy, and the products less refined than their Dutch counterparts. Most delftware was decorated in blue and white, although high-temperature colours broadened the palette in the early 18thC, especially at the bristol potteries. liverpool and Dublin were also major producers, with a substantial output of transfer-printed tiles from 1750. Delftware production declined with the development of the more refined creamware towards the end of the 18thC

della Robbia
The original della Robbia family were 15thC Florentine potters and sculptors, producing maiolica ware. Their work, notably that of Luca della Robbia, inspired artist-potter Harold Rathbone to found the Delia Robbia Company of Birkenhead in 1894 which produced tiles, plaques, bottles and vases in arts and crafts style using sgraffito techniques under a coloured transparent lead glaze.

Dent, Edward
(1790-1853) Clock-maker noted for his pocket watches, marine chronometers and the construction of the 'Big Ben' clock in London (which was completed by his stepson, Frederick). Dent was in partnership with John arnold 1830-40 and then worked on his own.

Dentil
See decorative motifs.

Derby
A city renowned for its porcelain. Derby's first factory making soft-paste porcelain was founded c. 1750, and concentrated mainly on figures, vases and cabinet-ware. Derby figures can be identified by three unglazed patches on the base, and earlier glazed figures often have a dry edge. Early examples were some of the finest ever modelled in Britain. In the 1770s Derby pioneered the use of unglazed biscuit models in Britain. William Duesbury, initially an outside decorator for the factory, took over as director in 1756, producing articles quite openly in imitation of meissen porcelain. Characteristic Derby ware of the period includes ink sets, potpourri vases and salts decorated with landscape scenes set with tiny figures. Duesbury acquired the chelsea porcelain factory in 1770 - the products were known as Chelsea-Derby until the factory's closure in 1784 - and Bow in 1775. The product range broadened dramatically, and a stronger china body incorporating bone ash was introduced. sÈvres took over from Meissen as the main source of inspiration, with neoclassical decoration and rich ground colours of claret and turquoise. In the 1770s, too, the 'Japan' patterns inspired by imari porcelain, which became strongly identified with Derby for the next two centuries, were introduced. Most memorable of all is the work by artists such as Thomas Steele, Zachariah Boreman, William 'Quaker' pegg and William Billingsley, whose work included exquisitely painted flowers, fruit and Derbyshire landscapesbone china replaced soft-paste porcelain in the early 19thC, but from 1811 the emphasis shifted to inexpensive products, and quality declined. The factory closed in 1848. Crown Derby Porcelain Co. was set up in 1876 and produced decorated and gilded bone china

derringer
Small pocket percussion-lock pistol invented by US gunsmith Henry Deringer (1786-1868).

Design registration
System introduced 1842 enabling British craftsmen and designers to take out patents on their original designs. Registered designs are marked with a symbol or number - a diamond-shaped mark was used 1842-83 and thereafter the letters RD followed by up to six digits were used. The marks are not a guide to the date of manufacture as they relate only to the design, which might continue for many years

dessert service
A set of crockery, usually porcelain, for eating and serving desserts, comprising fruit comport(s), sweet sauce and sugar tureens, and dessert plates. The fashion for having a special service separate from the dinner service began in the second half of the 18thC -sometimes to the point of setting a separate table for dessert - but had died out by the end of the 19thC.

detent
See escapement.

deutsche Blumen
Literally translated as 'German flowers' -referring to painted floral decoration which was widely used at porcelain and faience factories throughout Europe. The style was introduced at vienna in the 1720s but perfected at meissen c. 1740 and later used at worcester, Bow and chelsea. The lifelike flowers, based on contemporary botanical illustrations appear as single blooms or in loose bunches, and replaced the more stylised indianische blumen. A version that incorporated a shadowing effect is known as ombrierte Blumen (shadowed flowers).

Deutscher Werkbund
Group of German businessmen, artists, craftsmen and industrialists who, 1907-34, were influential in setting high standards in industrial design.

dhurri
A flat-weave floor covering made in India, typically from pastel-coloured cotton. It is the Indian equivalent of the Persian (Iranian) and Turkish kilim, although these are usually made of wool. The majority of dhurries were made in Indian jails, and began to be exported cheaply and in quantity to the West from the 19thC. However, pre-20thC examples are now quite rare and valuable. See indian jail carpets

diagonal barometer
See angle BAROMETER.

dial
The 'face' of a clock or watch on which the time, calendar or astronomical information is registered. The term can refer to the whole face or to the individual discs or rings, such as the calendar dial, on which the periods of time are inscribed. Dials first appeared c. 1350. Previously, hours were recorded by a single strike of a bell. A dial plate is the metal plate in a clock or watch which is attached to the front plate of the movement, and to which the metal chapter ring or enamel dial is fixed.

diamond
Considered the most valuable precious stone. Diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring substance, and refracts (bends) light and disperses colour very strongly. These qualities give the stones great brilliance and fire especially since the 17thC when diamond cutting was developed and improved. The value of a diamond depends on size, colour and the number of flaws. Completely colourless stones are rare; most diamonds are slightly tinged with yellow or brown. Rare red, blue and green shades are known as fancy diamonds or fancies. A diamond's colour and clarity can be altered by HEAT TREATMENT.

diamond-point
See engraving.

diaper
See decorative motifs.

diatreta vase
See cage cup.

die
Any of various devices used for cutting out, forming or stamping a material. In coins, for example, the designs on each of the two sides of the blank are struck simultaneously by a pair of dies or punches, either by hand or machine; usually the more complicated obverse die, or pile, is fixed on a solid base, while the reverse die, or trussel, moves up and down.

dimity
White cotton, simple tabby-weave fabric sometimes patterned, used for bed and window curtains from the late 17th to early 19th centuries and as a dress material in the early 19thC. It was imported from India before production started in Lancashire in the 18thC.

ding ware
With yingqing, the earliest Chinese porcelain wares, dating from the song dynasty (960-1279). Dishes are the most common, but some bottles, ewers and vases have been excavated from burial grounds. Many forgeries have been produced in Hong Kong and Taiwan.

diplomatic sword
See dress sword.

Directoire style
French decorative furniture style which peaked during the Directoire government (1795-9). The style was a simplified and austere version of the Louis XVI style. Minimal decoration was used, and Republican symbols - such as the cap of liberty and the fasces (a bundle of rods bound around an axe) - appear frequently on furniture, faience and textiles. The Directoire style merged into the empire period.

dirk
1 A long single-edged knife, traditionally used by Scottish Highlanders and still worn by officers of Scottish regiments of the British army. 2 A short dagger with either a straight or curved blade, carried by naval officers in the late 18th and early 18th centuries.

dish ring
Hollow, waisted cylindrical ring of pierced, chased or fretwork silver used to support hot dishes and to protect the surface of tables and sideboards. Dish rings were made from the early 18thC and are erroneously known as potato rings.

dispensary
Medicine cupboard about 9-13in (23-33 cm) high with shelves and racks on the inside of the doors.

distressed
Trade term for a work of art, normally a piece of furniture in obvious need of repair. The term is also used to describe a wood surface which has become rough and uneven through age, or which has been made to appear older than it is.

divan
A long couch or sofa without back or arms and often set against a wall. The word 'divan' is Turkish, and both the divan and the ottoman seat (from which the divan developed) are based on Turkish state furniture.

Dixon, James, & Sons
Sheffield firm of silversmiths, established in 1806, which became the leading maker and exporter of britannia metal and electroplated wares to the USA in the mid-19thC.

dog of Fo
Stylised Chinese Buddhist lion (Fo means Buddha), in Chinese mythology one of a facing pair of temple guardians. They are found as modelled figures in painted decoration on porcelain. The Japanese version is called shi'shi.

doily
18thC term for a fringed napkin, named after a London linen mercer by the name of Doily. From the 19thC the term was applied to the circles of decorative cotton or linen placed on serving plates beneath cakes and sandwiches.

doll marks
Marks found on some dolls identifying maker's name, batch or style number, size or diameter of head, trademark and sometimes the number of components used to make the doll. Such marks are normally only found on dolls made by the most famous and established manufacturers. Where the marks appear on the body varies according to maker and type of doll. Marks on bisque dolls, for example, are usually found on the back of the head. In addition, official registration or patent marks may appear, as follows Déposé or Deponiert - patent application registered, France and Germany, late 19thC; Breveté or Bté - French for patented; SGDG (sans garantie du Gouvernement) - without government guarantee, from 1850; DRGM (Deutsches Reichsgebrauchsmuster) - German, patent registered, from 1909; Ges Gesch (Gesetzlich Geschutzt) - German, patent registered, from the end of the 19thC; PAT and PATd - patented, Britain and USA, from the end of the 19thC.

dome
Blown glass cylinder, one end of which is domed, while the base is trimmed straight to allow it to stand upright. Domes were used in Victorian times to protect collections of stuffed birds or animals, arrangements of wax fruit and other displays, and as protective covers for automata and SKELETON CLOCKS.

door furniture
Collective term for all door fittings, including door-knockers, handles and knobs, door-stops, hinges, letterboxes, finger plates and decorative emblems or escutcheons. Door furniture tended to be purely functional until the late 18thC when, in accordance with the rise of the interior design concept, ornate Rococo and neoclassical examples earned their place as ornamental accessories. See hinge

doorstop
See dump.

double-cloth carpets
See ingrain CARPETS.

doubloon
Loosely applied nickname for Spanish or Spanish-American 16th-19thC gold coins, in particular the dobla escudo.

doucai
A Chinese palette outlined in underglaze blue, the design then glazed and enamelled by filling parts or all of the pattern with translucent famille-verte colours; formerly spelt tou-ts'ai. See wucai and sancai.

Doulton
Ceramics factory founded by John Doulton (1793-1873) in Lambeth, south London, 1818. The factory's success in the first half of the 19thC was based on its stoneware chemical and sanitary products. In the 1860s, a close association with students from the Lambeth School of Art led to the development of Doulton studio art wares. Artists included Arthur, Hannah and Florence Barlow, John Broad, Mark Marshall, Frank Butler and George Tinworth. In 1872 Doulton launched Lambeth faience (underglaze-painted earthenware). Later came silicon ware (a vitrified, unglazed stoneware), and marquetry ware, made of marbled clays in chequerwork patterns. In 1882 Doulton launched a high-quality porcelain range at its Burslem factory and from 1900 was known for its tile panels and porcelain figures, particularly its art deco examples.

Dovecot Studios
See edinburgh tapestry company.

dovetail
See joining.

dram glass
Short-stemmed, small-bowled glass with a heavy foot, used for drinking spirits. Types of dram glasses known as firing glasses were made in Britain from 1740 until the 19thC. They were used for toasts and hammered on a table to make a noise like gunfire.

draw-leaf table
Extendible table with the top divided into three leaves, known from the 16thC. The two outer leaves slide beneath the central one when the table is shortened.

drawn stem
A drinking-glass stem that is drawn out as an extension of the bowl when the molten glass is being blown, as opposed to one that is shaped separately and then attached.

drawn thread work
A type of embroidered fabric in which some of the threads are drawn out to form geometrical or other patterns in relief. It was introduced in the 15thC or possibly earlier.

Dresden
MEISSEN-style ceramics produced by various factories in the Dresden area of south-eastern Germany in the 19thC. Until the 1970s the term 'Dresden' referred to the Meissen factory itself. Crown Dresden is porcelain produced by outside decorator Helena Wolfsohn, in Dresden in the 1870s. Wolfsohn originally used the Meissen royal factory mark on her products, in particular the AR (Augustus Rex) mark. Following a lawsuit brought by Meissen, she adopted a crown with 'D' scripted beneath. Her work was typically decorated with pastoral scenes (which were inspired by the French artist Antoine Watteau) interspersed with panels of flowers.

Dresden work
East, including India and China, from the 15thC onwards. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to start the long-distance trade, soon followed by the British, French and Dutch, and then the USA. The British company, set up in 1601 to trade for spices, flourished for more than 200 years importing and exporting furniture, carpets, silk, embroidery and porcelain.

dress sword
A sword worn as part of a uniform or regalia and not for use as a weapon, also known as a court or diplomatic sword.

dresser
A long table, sometimes in the style of a sideboard with cupboard, drawers or open storage space below, and/or open shelves tiered or stepped above. From medieval times, a dresser, or dressing board, was where food was garnished or 'dressed' before it was served. Welsh dresser is a term dating from the late 19thC, used to describe a freestanding dresser with cupboard and drawers, and shelves above. Welsh dressers were made from the late 17thC in Wales, Lancashire and elsewhere.

Dresser, Christopher
(1834-1904) British decorative-arts writer and designer whose distinctive style anticipated the concept of the modern movement. Dresser advocated the importance of design linked with function. He began his career as a botanist, but turned to the study of the arts and published Principles of Design; he was art director of the linthorpe pottery 1879-81. Dresser's designs, often influenced by Japanese style, were applied to carpets, glassware, furniture, pottery and textiles. He designed simple, geometric silverware for elkington, James dixon and Hukin and Heath.

dressing table
A term introduced in the 17thC for a small table with drawers designed to be used for grooming and dressing. In the 18thC, designs incorporated compartments and drawers for a wide range of toilet accessories, and mirrors became standard for the first time.

drop seat
Detached padded seat designed to fit into a rebate on a chair frame, introduced in the late 17th to early 18th centuries.

drop-front
See fall-front.

drop-leaf table
A development of the gateleg table, with one or two leaves which open out, supported on hinged legs, arms or brackets, to extend the surface area.

drum clock
1 Early table clock with a drum-shaped case often of gilt brass and especially popular in the 16thC. 2 Late 18th or 19thC French clock movement fitted into a brass, drum-shaped case.

drum table
Large circular table made from the late 18thC through the 19thC, with drawers set into a deep frieze, and supported on a central pedestal or tripod. A variant used for dining, and with a shallower, expandable top is the capstan table; other variants are referred to as library or writing tables according to their purpose. Rent tables, with four drawers for each quarter year or seven weekday drawers and a till set into the table top, were used for rent collection until the early 19thC.

drum teapot
Silver, flat-bottomed, cylindrical teapot with a straight spout, flat lid and single handle of wood, popular 17608-90s.

dry-edge figures
SLIP-cast porcelain figures made at derby, 1750-5. They are so called because they have an unglazed, dry edge around the base.

drypoint
A printmaking technique in which a drypoint needle is used to score the design directly into the metal plate. Unlike the true engraving process, the metal is not actually dug out and removed, but is thrown to the sides of the grooves, creating slight ridges known as burrs. These hold some ink which transfers to the final print giving it distinctive smudgy lines.

ducat
Any of various former European gold coins which used the ducat standard set in the 13thC. A gold ducat consistently weighs 3.5 g of. 986 fine gold.

duchesse
A French term for a day bed with a curved back. A duchesse brisée is a version made in two or three parts - including a foot end with a low, curved back and sometimes a stool in the middle to extend the length.

duelling pistols
flintlock or percussion pistols dating from the 18thC, usually in pairs.

Duesbury, William
See derby.

Dufrene, Maurice
(1876-1955) French designer of furniture, metalwork, carpets and glass in art deco and modernist styles who specialised in lavish, custom-built pieces and interiors.

dumbwaiter
A mobile stand with two or more tiers of circular trays around a central column on a tripod base with castors. Dumbwaiters were designed to be placed near a dining table for self-service, and introduced in Britain in the 1720s.

dummy board
Cut-out image of a human figure, such as a pedlar, maid or footman, or animal such as a cat, in painted wood. They were possibly used as fire screens in late 17thC Britain, but by the mid- 18thC were purely ornamental. Reproductions were made in the mid-19thC and in the 1920s and 30s.

dump
1 Heavy glass doorstop, also known as a door porter, made of scrap molten glass which would otherwise have been dumped. Bottle factories often made doorstops as a sideline. 2 See holey dollar.

duplex
See escapement.

Dux
See royal Dux.

Dwight, John
(c.1637-1703) Pioneering London potter who produced the first identified British stoneware in the 1670s. By the beginning of the 18thC, he had developed a greyish (or mouse-coloured) SALT-GLAZED STONEWARE and introduced the first fine red stoneware to Britain. Dwight's influence spread quickly to Staffordshire with the elers brothers who had worked with him.

Eames, Charles
(1907-78) US architect and furniture designer, who, with his colleague Eero saarinen, explored the potential of new materials such as plywood, aluminium and steel. He developed his knowledge of plywood moulding during the Second World War, later using the technique to create furniture -chairs, tables, screens and storage units - that were fluid, light and strong.

earthenware
Product made from clay that is only fired to the point at which the particles form a single mass but do not vitrify into a glassy, impermeable substance. The resulting body is porous, and a glaze is needed to make it waterproof. Because of the low firing temperatures, glazed earthenware can take a wide range of metal oxides as colouring agents, and is often brightly decorated.

East India Companies
Trading companies from the West who opened up trade with the countries of the Far fine metal wire is fixed onto the body and the resulting network of cloisons (compartments) filled with enamel paste.

Eastlake, Charles
(1836-1906) Architect and furniture designer associated with the art furniture movement, c. 1870-90.

Eastman, George
(1854-1942) An American dry-plate camera manufacturer who in 1888 introduced the Kodak camera - the first camera designed to use a flexible roll film. The film was a roll of paper coated with a light-sensitive emulsion.

ebonite
See vulcanite.

ebony
A very close-textured hardwood which is black in colour. Ebony is unusually resistant to decay. It is, however, brittle, and from the 17thC in Britain was most commonly thinly cut as a veneer, and used for BANDING and INLAID DECORATION. Other woods such as fruitwoods, were stained black, or ebonised, to imitate ebony and are much more common than the real thing. Coromandel is similar in colour and weight, but mottled grey or brown or striped with black and yellow. Calamander is a light brown ebony, mottled and striped with black, which was popular for Regency veneers and banding.

Edinburgh Tapestry Company
Non-profit-making workshop established 1912. Until 1940, the company produced large, commissioned tapestry scenes; after 1946, smaller, coarser-weave panels designed by contemporary artists were more typical. The company was also known as the Dovecot Studios or Dovecot Tapestries.

Edis, Robert
arts and crafts movement furniture designer and author of the influential publication The Decoration and Furniture of Town Houses, in 1881.

Edo period
(1615-1867) Prosperous period in Japanese history when the arts flourished and Edo (now Tokyo) became the new capital city.

Egermann, Friedrich
See LITHYALIN GLASS.

egg and dart
See decorative motifs.

eggshell porcelain
An extremely delicate Chinese porcelain from the early 18C, later produced by the Irish belleek porcelain factory and the Japanese kutani factories in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Egyptian blackware
A fine black stoneware, produced in Staffordshire from c. 1710, which could be polished to a shine. Wedgwood's basaltes ware is a more refined version.

Egyptian taste
Interest in Egyptian architecture, symbols and hieroglyphics, initially prompted by Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1797, and which were incorporated into the work of neoclassical designers and architects as decorative motifs. The early 19thC furniture designs of English designer and collector Thomas hope helped introduce Egyptian taste to Britain.

elbow chair
See carver.

electric clock
A clock that is driven by electricity, first produced in Britain by Alexander bain in the 1840s. The clocks fall into three main categories: free pendulum clocks, in which the pendulum receives an electric impulse to maintain momentum; clocks with automatic rewinding powered by a small electric motor; and synchronous clocks, regulated by the alternating current of mains electricity.

electrogilding
See gilding.

electroplating
The method of plating metal by an electrolytic process. The best known electroplated articles are those of silver and chromium. The former replaced the sheffield plate process in the mid-19thC. The process was first patented in Sheffield in 1840. nickel silver was soon found to be the most successful base for electroplating; it may be marked EPNS (electroplated nickel silver). Copper and britannia metal (EPBM) were also used. Unlike Sheffield plate, the silver deposited in the electroplating process is free of all impurities, and the end products tend to be a colder, less mellow metallic colour.

electrotyping
A refinement of the electroplating process in which silver-plated articles are reproduced from moulds. A mould is used as one of the electrodes in an electroplating vat, and by electrolysis is lined - more thickly than in straightforward electroplating - with the silver. The mould is then freed to leave a hollow shell in the shape of the finished article. Introduced in 1843, electro-typing was expensive but accurate, good for making exact copies of complex metalwork and prompting a mid- 19thC interest in naturalistic decoration on silverware.

Elers, David and John
(fl 1686-1700) Dutch brothers trained as silversmiths, who came to Britain c. 1688 and made a significant impact on the development of British ceramics. They worked with John dwight at his Fulham potteries in London (1690-3) and then moved to Staffordshire to set up their own business. The combination of the Dwight influence and the Elers' own expertise helped to establish Staffordshire's unique place in history as an important international ceramics centre. The Elers specialised in fine red stoneware decorated with relief patterns in white, which was much imitated by other factories

Elkington
Birmingham-based metalworking firm, whose proprietor George Elkington (1801-65) patented the first silver electroplating process in 1840. From then on, the firm concentrated on electroplating and electrotyping, leasing out the patent to other silversmiths, and on producing tableware and presentation pieces by Christopher dresser and other designers.

Ellicot, John
(1706-72) Master clock-maker to King George III, who developed a form of compensated pendulum and improved the cylinder escapement. His father and his son, both called John, were also notable clock-makers in their own right.

elm
English elm is a hard and flexible wood, light golden-brown in colour and with a coarse, irregular grain. It has a tendency to warp and is prone to worm. The timber was often used in country furniture. The wych elm or Scotch elm is harder than the English variety, with a straighter, finer grain and it takes a good polish

Eltonware
Pottery produced from 1881 by English art potter Sir Edmund Elton (1846-1940) at his family home in Somerset. Elton, a follower of the aesthetic movement, was influenced by Far Eastern, South American and European art. Decorative Eltonware vases, jugs and bowls use various coloured slips and lustre, lead, metallic or monochrome glazes.

embossing
The means of producing a relief design, on metal or leather for example, by hammering on the reverse side of the material. Objects such as pots and tankards are embossed with a long-handled, dome-headed snarling-iron. On silverware, embossing is used for the basic, large-scale relief shapes in a design, and finer detail is added by REPOUSSE and flat-CHASING techniques

emerald
One of the rarest and most valuable precious stones, depending on highly variable quality. Emeralds range in colour from pale to dark green, the most valuable being dark green with brilliance and clarity. Flawless stones are extremely rare.

Empire style
Furniture and furnishings style popular in France c. 1804-30 and in the USA c. 1810-30 and beyond.

enamel
A smooth, glassy, protective or decorative medium that can be fused onto a metal, glass or ceramic surface by firing. Enamel colours are made out of powdered glass and pigmented metallic oxides such as gold, copper and manganese suspended in an oily medium. This can be painted onto glass or ceramic objects, and during firing, the oily medium burns away and the others fuse together. In enamelware, coloured enamel pastes are applied to a metal body by various techniques and then fired. In basse-taille (low relief) enamelling, a design is carved on the body and the whole area is covered with one or more layers of translucent enamels. In champlevé enamelling, the ground is cut away and the hollows filled with the enamel paste, leaving the raised areas free. In cloisonné enamelling,

encoignure
See corner cupboard.

end-of-the-day glass
See friggers.

engine-turning
Engraved decoration on metal and other materials, of circles, waves or narrow grooves, produced on a lathe.

engobe
See slip.

engraving
1 Method of decorating by cutting fine lines or dots into a glass, metal or other hard surface In acid engraving or acid etching, the subject to be decorated is coated with an acid-resistant wax, varnish or gum, and the design incised through this with a fine steel point. Alternatively, areas to remain in relief are coated with the acid-resistant substance, leaving the background exposed. The object is immersed in acid which 'eats away' the exposed areas. Depth and texture are achieved by adjusting the time of exposure to the acid. The process was used to decorate late 15thC armour, and from the 16thC, mainly developed as a printing process. See cameo glass. Diamond-point engraving involves using a diamond point to scratch a design on a glass surface. The technique was developed in 16thC Venice, but gradually spread throughout Europe. It is seen mainly on cristallo and flint glass - often for calligraphy Stipple engraving was developed in 17thC Holland. A diamond-pointed tool is tapped against the surface, resulting in dots of varying density. The patterns thus created show great subtleties of light and shade Wheel engraving is believed to date from c. 1500 bc, but the technique flourished in Europe from the 16thC. The surface to be decorated is held over a treadle-operated rotating wheel fitted with an abrasive disc and a pattern is ground into the surface. The method can create shallow surface engraving, or deeper cameo and intaglio effects. 2 A print made from an inked steel or copper plate into which a design has been cut. See also aquatint, mezzotint

ensi
Small squarish rugs woven by several of the nomadic Turkoman tribes of central Asia to cover the tent entrance. Many have a cruciform design and are wrongly referred to as hatchli (cross) rugs.

entablature
See column.

entrée dish
Shallow silver or sheffield plate serving dish with or without a cover, made in Britain from c.1760.

envelope table
See card table.

epaulette
Military shoulder strap often fringed with gold braid.

EPBM
See electroplating.

epergne
An elaborate stand, usually of silver or glass, for the centre of the dining table with branching arms supporting removable receptacles, such as fruit or sweetmeat dishes and condiment holders. Epergnes came to Britain from France c. 1715; the name is from the French épargner (to save), the idea being that dinner guests were saved the trouble of passing dishes.

EPNS
See electroplating.

equation dial
See mean time; quare, daniel.

Erinoid
Type of plastic designed to imitate tortoiseshell and used to make fashion accessories such as hair clips in the early 1900s.

Ernes, Rebeccah
(fl. 1808-29) London-based silversmith who worked in partnership with her brother-in-law, William Ernes. Following his death in 1808, she formed a partnership with her business manager, Edward Barnard, and went on to produce numerous items including tea and coffee services, epergnes and tankards.

escapement
Part of the mechanism in a clock or watch that controls the driving force (either a weight or a spring) and allows it to 'escape' at regular intervals. This counteracts the tendencies of both an unchecked weight to accelerate and a spring to weaken on unwinding. See also brocot and remontoire. The verge escapement was introduced with the first mechanical clocks. It was originally used with an oscillating bar or foliot with weights at either end, and after the introduction of portable clocks and watches c. 1520, with a balance wheel. The anchor or recoil escapement, invented c. 1670, operates in association with a pendulum; it replaced the verge escapement in longcase clocks some 15 years after their introduction, but was not used in bracket clocks until c. 1800. The motion of a seconds hand linked to an anchor escapement is characterised by a very slight backward movement (or recoil) after each forward movement. The deadbeat escapement, in use by 1715, was also for pendulum clocks. It evolved from the anchor escapement, but the seconds hand stops dead after each forward motion. The lever escapement, an adaptation of the deadbeat invented in 1754, is used with a balance wheel. From c. 1820 it was used increasingly for watches and carriage clocks. The duplex escapement, also for balance-wheel mechanisms, has either two escape wheels or, more often, a single escape wheel with two sets of teeth. It was perfected c.1750 and used for high-grade watches and carriage clocks 1750-1850. The detent or chronometer escapement is used with a balance wheel, and incorporates a detent, or locking device, of either spring or pivoted form, which alternately locks and unlocks the escape wheel. Developed from the mid- 18thC and widely used in the 19thC, it proved one of the most accurate escapements of all.

escutcheon
1 A term for a carved shield on a pediment. 2 Any protective metal plate on furniture, particularly a keyhole plate. 3 A small metal nameplate on a clock face or a firearm, for example.

estampille
Maker's mark - name, initials or monogram - stamped on French furniture particularly during the second half of the iSthC. The mark was struck with an iron stamp and appears in intaglio.

etching
See engraving.

Etruscan style
A late 18thC offshoot of neoclassicism introduced by architect-designer Robert Adam, c. 1774. Many of Adam's designs were ostensibly based on the architecture, art and ornament of the ancient Italian country of Etruria (now Tuscany and Umbria). The use of boldly contrasting black, white and terracotta was typical of his interiors but the colour scheme was in fact taken from Greek pottery.

ewer
Large serving jug made of precious or base metals or ceramics. Ewer-and-basin sets were used for hand-washing at the dining table,but less common after the arrival of table forks in the late 16thC

excise marks
See capacity marks.

exergue
The area sometimes left free below the design on a circular coin, often used for the date, artist's initials or a small design feature.

Exeter carpets
Woollen carpets made in Exeter, Devon, in the mid-18thC using Turkish knot (see carpet knots) . Exeter carpets were among the earliest to be made in Britain, their elaborate designs based on Savonnerie patterns, with Rococo scrolls, floral motifs and foliage. Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratif s et Industriels Modernes An exhibition held in Paris, 1925, which played a major role in establishing art deco style. It was a French-dominated showcase for all fields of the decorative arts

Fabergé, Peter Carl
(1846-1920) Russian designer and manager of the Faberge workshops which produced meticulously crafted objects of vertu and jewellery.
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faceted steel
Decorative steel studs cut with facets which were fashionable in the 18th and 19th centuries and used for buttons, belts, sword hilts and jewellery. Woodstock, near Oxford, and Matthew boulton's factory in Birmingham were the main centres of production.

facets
1 Small, flat surfaces ground onto cut gemstones. Some cuts enhance colour at the expense of brilliance. See jewel cutting. 2 Angular, light-reflecting surfaces in BRIGHT-CUT ENGRAVING.

façon de Venise
High-quality, late 16th and 17thC glass made in the venetian style, mainly in Britain, Germany and the Netherlands.

faience
The name given to the French tin-glazed earthenware which developed from Italian maiolica. The term is also used for tin-glazed earthenware products from Germany and Scandinavia; the British equivalent of faience is delftware, the Dutch delft. Faience was first produced in any quantity in France from the late 16thC, mainly by Italians (the term derives from the Italian town of Faenza). Early designs were Italian style; from the 17thC they emulated Chinese porcelain, and in the 18thC, meissen. High quality, extravagantly decorated faience was made for the aristocracy early in the 18thC, but by the end of the century the development of cream ware for everyday use, and porcelain for finer products, significantly reduced the production of faience wares in Europe A tin-glazed earthenware designed for everyday use was known as faience blanche. It was produced in the 17th and 18th centuries, first in Italy then throughout most of mainland Europe Faience fine is the French version of the British creamware produced from the 1760s. It was introduced in 1768 in France and is usually lead glazed rather than tin glazed.

fairings
Cheap porcelain groups of human or animal figures made for sale or as prizes in fairgrounds 1860-1914. They were often lighthearted or comic in theme, with innuendo captions beneath. The fairings, made c. 1860-90 in Germany and Austria for the British market, were produced in moulds and had solid bases. From 1890 to c. 1914, hollow imitations were being mass-produced.

fairyland luster
lustreware decorated with fairyland scenes by Daisy Makeig Jones, registered by the wedgwood factory in 1915 and marketed throughout the 1920s and into the 30s.

fake
A genuine object altered in some way, not necessarily to deceive. See also forgery.

fall-front
The hinged lid on a desk, bureau or secretaire that folds down to form a writing surface, often supported by pull-out lopers. It is also known as drop front.

famille-rose, famille-verte
Commonly used French terms for 'families', or palettes of enamel colours used on Chinese porcelain. Famille-verte, introduced in the mid-17thC, dominated by green (and also containing yellow, aubergine, black and blue), was largely replaced by famille-rose c. 1720. Famille-noire is famille-verte with the background filled in black, and famille-jaune is similar but with a yellow ground. The last two are often painted onto an unglazed biscuit body.

fan
An essential accessory for women, especially in 18thC Europe, used to create a breeze and to communicate modesty, coyness or discreet flirting. The rigid fans of the ancient civilisations and Renaissance Europe have a long handle topped by a leaf of parchment, fabric or feathers within a rigid frame. Folding fans originated in China and came to Europe with the Portuguese in the 15thC. Ribs of bone or similar material are covered with a pleated, semicircular leaf of paper, silk or lace. Brisé fans are made entirely of overlapping ribs of ivory, mother-of-pearl or bone with a ribbon threaded through the upper ends. (Brisé is French for 'folding'.) A cockade fan can be pleated or brisé but opens out into a complete circle

farmer's watch
Type of pocket watch mass-produced in Britain in the first half of the 19thC, the dial often decorated with a painted rural scene. Large versions are sometimes referred to as turnip watches.

farthing
A quarter of an old British penny (0.104p). It was issued in silver in the 13thC, in copper from 1672 and in bronze 1860-1956. Farthings ceased to be legal tender in 1961.

fauld
See armour.

faux bois
French term for a secondary wood such as beech painted to simulate an exotic wood such as rosewood; an effect used in the early 19thC. See decorative motifs.

faux-montre
An 18th or early 19thC pill or patch box in the form of a dummy watch, hence the French term meaning 'false watch'. Some are made of BlLSTON ENAMEL.

Favrile glass
Trade name for a type of iridescent art glass developed by the US designer Louis Comfort tiffany c. 1892. It was made in a variety of colours, the oil-on-water effect created by spraying the hot glass with metallic salts, or by applying acid or metallic lustres to a cooled surface. It was mainly used for vases.

feather-edge
Engraved or bright-cut patterns of fine, slanting lines that decorate the edge of silverware. Feather-edging was used on flatware c. 1760-90 and on the handles of silver cutlery from the late 18thC onwards.

feldspar porcelain
A tough form of bone china which contains pure feldspar in place of Cornish china stone, which is only part feldspar. The first successful feldspar body was produced at coalport, but spode was the first to name the body and mark pieces 'feldspar porcelain' c. 1820. The idea was soon taken up by other Staffordshire potters.

fender
A low screen or rail of cast iron, copper, brass or steel designed to stop coals rolling out of the hearth. Fenders were introduced in the late 17thC when raised baskets or grates lifted the fire off the ground. They may be movable pieces or a continuation of the fixed fire surround. A fender curb is a shallow version used on a broad, deep hearth. Club fenders or seat curbs are combined fender and padded seat connected by metal bars.

festival dolls
English term for hinaningyo - extravagantly dressed Japanese dolls made for doll festivals at which Japanese boys and girls were ceremoniously initiated into traditional customs. The dolls were traditionally handed down from generation to generation.

festoon
See decorative motifs.

fielded panel
A flat, raised panel in a wall or a piece of furniture with bevelled edges.

figure
1 The markings, grain or pattern on a piece of wood. 2 A figured textile is one with a pattern of figures or naturalistic subjects as opposed to one that is plain or striped. 3 Human or animal form.

filet
Netting with a pattern or design embroidered into it to create a lace effect, popular 16th to early 17thC and late 19th to early 20thC. It is also known as lacis or darned netting.

filigrana
See latticing.

filigree
Lace-like decoration made with fine gold or silver wire. It was widely used in Europe from the late 17thC on jewellery and for openwork panels set in boxes, baskets and cups. Birmingham was a manufacturing centre in the 18th and early 19th centuries but thereafter much filigree came from Malta, India and China.

fillet
1 A small ledge supporting a shelf. 2 A small, narrow band found on architectural features in furniture, such as on a fluted column. 3 A leatherworking wheel tool used in bookbinding to make straight or parallel straight lines. The term can also refer to the line itself.

finial
See knop.

firangi
An Indian sword with a straight, strengthened blade for use with both hands. The blade was often imported from Europe, hence the name firangi, or 'foreigner'.

fire
The bright flashes of coloured light displayed by a.gemstone resulting from its high refractive index and strong dispersion of light. The fire of a stone is improved by faceting. There is more fire in a correctly faceted diamond than in any other natural colourless gemstone - emeralds and rubies have brilliance, not fire.

fire irons
Collective name for a matching set of tools for stoking and cleaning a domestic fire, including tongs, poker, shovel, brush, sometimes a fork, and before the use of coal, a hook for handling logs. 18thC fire irons were usually of polished iron or steel and tended to be larger than later versions. Twisted handles were popular in the 1790s. In the 19thC, fire irons were mainly made in brass.

fire polishing
Technique applied to pressed glass to give it greater brilliance. Moulded objects are heated at the mouth of the furnace to remove the dullness sometimes imparted from the trace elements in the iron mould.

fireback
Cast-iron panel at the back of a fireplace to retain and radiate heat, to protect the adjacent wall and for decoration. Firebacks are also sometimes known as fireplates, iron chimneys and reredos.

firedogs
See andirons. fire gilding See gilding .

firelock
See flintlock and wheel-lock.

firescreen
See pole screen.

firing
The process of baking ceramics in a kiln. An initial or biscuit firing causes a chemical change to take place in the clay paste, binding the particles to form a hard, rock-like body. Firing temperatures vary for different ceramics: up to 800°C (1450°F) for earthenware; 1200-1450°C (2200-2650°F) for stoneware; 1100-1200°C (2000-2200°F) for soft-paste porcelain; and over 1400°C (2550°F) for hard-paste porcelain. Subsequent firings may fuse the glaze or enamel colours onto the body.

firing glass
See dram glass.

fish pattern
See herati pattern.

Fisher, Alexander
(1864-1936) British sculptor, painter and silversmith who specialised in enamelling. He invented a widely copied technique that created an illusion of depth in translucent enamel by using a foil background. Much of his silverwork features celtic motifs.

Fitzhugh pattern
chinese export porcelain with a trellis border in underglaze blue or overglaze iron red, and inner flower clusters, thought to be named after a family who commissioned the design. It was copied by various English factories.

Fitzroy barometer
A cheap, serviceable mercury stick barometer which was mass-produced from c. 1870. It includes printed paper weather-forecasting charts based on Fitzroy's Rules' which were introduced on earlier marine barometers designed by Admiral Robert Fitzroy. Fitzroy barometers were made in variously styled cases, and typically also included a thermometer, and a storm gauge.

flagons
Large vessels for serving wine or beer, like large-scale tankards, which were made throughout Europe, generally in pairs. Flagons have a flat bottom, slightly tapering sides and a handle and thumbpiece, often with a hinged lid. They were rare before the 17thC and usually made of ornate silver, to hold Communion wine. Towards the end of the 17thC their use increased in taverns and households.

flambé
The French for 'flamed', referring to a lustrous, rich crimson-red ceramics glaze with flashes of brilliant blue. The effect was produced by firing a copper glaze in a reducing atmosphere - one that removes oxygen from the glaze. The technique was used on Chinese porcelain of the late 17th and 18th centuries, and rediscovered and widely applied in Europe in the late 19thC. See also SANG-DE-BOEUF.

flame stitch
See bargello.

flan
See blank.

flange neck
Doll's neck with a ridged base used to secure a bisque, china or composition head to a cloth body.

flashed glass
Glass objects dipped into molten glass to give them a fine outer layer, thinner than on cased glass, which is often in a contrasting colour. The flashing may be cut or ground away in a pattern to expose the layer underneath.

flask
Stoppered glass, ceramic or silver container for holding liquids, often alcohol. Those for table use generally have a bulbous body and a short neck. Small flasks for carrying on the person tend to be flattened ovoids in shape, and also called pocket bottles or spirit flasks.

flatbacks
Pottery figures designed to be viewed from the front only, with flat, unmodelled and undecorated backs. They were intended as decorations for cottage mantelpieces and produced mainly in the 19thC by staffordshire potteries. The figures were easily reproduced in moulds, decorated in underglaze blue, and embellished over the glaze with bright enamel colours. Later models have a more limited colour range, some in black and white with gilding. Late 20thC reproductions made from the original moulds abound.

flatware
In silverware, the term strictly refers to articles of tableware made from a flat sheet without a cutting edge, such as spoons, forks, sifters and sheers, although in modern usage the term also includes knives. The term also refers to other objects of flattened form, such as plates, saucers, shallow dishes and salvers, as opposed to cups, bowls and tureens (hollow-ware).

flat-weave
Generic term for any form of carpet or rug with a flat, tapestry-like weave with no pile, including the kilim and sumakh.

Flaxman, John
(1755-1826) British neoclassical sculptor and artist who designed and modelled for wedgwood, producing friezes and portrait medallions, from 1775. In the late 18thC he worked mainly as a marble sculptor and also produced models for silver for Paul storr.

flecked glassware
Type of glass decorated with random coloured specks. The technique, originally developed by the Romans in the 1stC ad, involves rolling a gather of molten glass over broken chips of glasson a marver, and then blowing it. Flecked ware is often called nailsea glass, but it was also made at many other factories. Flecked glass was used to make jugs, flasks and novelty items such as ROLLING PINS.

Flemish lace
See lace.

Flight & Barr
See worcester.

flint glass
See lead crystal.

flintlock
Type of ignition mechanism on a firearm used from the early 17thC until the early 19thC. Sparks were generated by friction between a piece of flint and a steel plate, the frizzen. Below the frizzen is a pan set next to a touch-hole in the breech. The sparks ignited powder in the pan and, via the touch-hole, fired the main charge in the breech.

flock
Paper or cloth used as wall covering, with a stencilled design picked out in glued-on powdered wool to give a contrasting velvety texture. Flock was first used in France and Britain in the early 17thC and was very fashionable in the 18thC.

Florentine mosaic
See pietra dura.

Florentine stitch
See bargello.

florin
Originally, a gold coin issued in Florence in the 13thC. In Britain, a silver florin - face value 10p (2s) - was first issued in 1849. The word 'florin' no longer appeared on these coins after 1936, although the denomination still exists in the form of the modern lop piece.

flow blue
Term used to describe the fuzzy and blurred cobalt-blue transfer prints on Staffordshire earthenware of the 1860s to 90s.

flower table
Table or stand specifically designed for holding plants or cut flowers. Some have inset, wire-covered trays which were filled with wet sand to hold cut flowers.

flower-brick
Brick-shaped container with holes pierced in the top for cut flower stems. delftware versions were popular in the 18thC. Larger, semicircular vessels with separate flower-holders are called bough-pots.

flute
Tall, stemmed drinking glass for wine with a slender bowl which flares out or narrows at the rim. Flute glasses were particularly popular 1773-1850. See also ratafia.

fluting
Semicircular parallel grooves which run vertically up a column.

Flux
A substance added to a glass or ceramic body that lowers the temperature at which the fusion or melting of base materials takes place during firing or smelting. Potash, bone-ash, borax, lime and soda are common flux materials.

fly braid
A decoration of knots and bunches of floss silk - popular on 18thC dresses and christening gowns.

fly leaf and bracket
Parts of a drop-leaf extending table: the fly or drop leaf of which is supported by a hinged fly bracket or rail.

fob chain
18thC term describing the chain used to secure a small pocket watch. The term originated from the fob pocket (in the waistband of men's breeches), and the word fob came to refer to any small ornament attached to a fob chain, such as a fob seal. In the late 19thC, ladies' ornamental watches suspended from a brooch on a short chain or strap were known as fob watches. The watch face was sometimes displayed upside-down so it could be read easily by the wearer.

Foley China Works
Staffordshire pottery founded 1860 and initially operated by Wileman & Co. The pottery was known for its simple, bold designs and brightly coloured decoration. The firm was renamed Shelley Potteries in 1925 and from the 1930s became a leading producer of art deco china, and children's crockery. Tea sets and dinner services are notable for their distinctive shapes, and floral, geometric and banded patterns - many by leading British artists such as Vanessa Bell, Duncan Grant, Laura knight and Graham Sutherland. The inverted cone-shaped cups and sharp triangular handles of the 'Mode' range and the square plates of 'Vogue' are typical.

foliated
A cabinet-making term referring to leaf-shaped ornament.

folio stand
See portfolio table.

Follot, Paul
(1877-1941) French interior decorator and early art deco designer of furniture, textiles, carpets and metalwork. His furniture is finely made with expensive materials such as ivory and shagreen. Early examples showed an art nouveau influence in their curving lines, and c. 1929 came a more geometric, Art Deco style.

Fontaine & Percier
French architect-designer team who were mainly responsible for establishing the empire style of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Pierre-François-Leonard Fontaine (1762-1853) and Charles Percier (1764-1838) were employed by the Emperor Napoleon to provide an interior-design style that reflected his life and empire. They designed furniture, silverware, textiles and were the first to coin the term 'interior decoration'.

foot-rim
Slightly projecting rim on the base of an object, also called a foot-ring or basal rim.

foot-warmer
Portable container of hot coals or water, used throughout northern Europe to keep feet warm. Most foot-warmers consist of an inner container made of stoneware or metal with a perforated outer case of wood, wrought iron, copper or brass, and were sometimes wrapped in carpet.

forgery
A deliberate attempt at deception. See also fake.

forks
See cutlery.

form watch
Watch made in the form of another object. Early examples of the 17thC were intended as a memento mori (reminder of death), often in the form of a cross or a skull. 19thC revivals included stringed instruments, shells and flower heads.

Fouquet, Alphonse
(1828-1911) French jewellery designer who specialised in enamelling and was inspired by renaissance designs. Many of his designs are carved onto precious stones. His son Georges (1862-1957) joined the firm in 1881 and took it over in 1895, designing pieces in art nouveau style.

foxing
Brownish-yellow spots or stains, or other discoloration on paper, a form of fungal growth caused by damp.

Franck, Kaj
(1911-89) Finnish designer who did much to bring modern Scandinavian design to international status during the 1950s and 60s. He was an independent designer of lighting, furniture and textiles, noted for his disciplined functionalism, and was artistic director of Finland's leading ceramics factory Arabia, 1946-78.

Frankenthal
German porcelain factory founded 1755 which produced a type of hard-paste porcelain with a glaze able to absorb enamel colours. Frankenthal produced tablewares in the style of meissen and sevres. Figures and statuettes in various styles including commedia dell'arte and chinoiserie were a speciality. The factory closed in 1799.

free pendulum clock
See electric

free-blowing
Glass-making process in which the glass is shaped in its molten state by blowing air through a blowing iron without the use of a mould.

freedom box
See seal.

French jet See
jet.

French polish
Form of lacquer used on furniture consisting of shellac dissolved in a solvent giving a harder, shinier finish than beeswax. It was introduced late 18thC and became popular in the early 19thC.

fretwork
1 Geometric, trellis-like pattern of intersecting vertical and horizontal lines repeated to form a continuous band. 2 The technique of cutting thin pieces of wood with a fine-bladed saw (fret saw) to form shapes or patterns. The fretwork pattern might be left open, as on table galleries, or blind, in which the fretwork is carved upon or applied to a solid surface and cannot be seen through. It is sometimes seen backed by fabric such as pleated silk, as on a decorative panel on a door or a cupboard. See cut-card work.

frieze
1 An ornamented, horizontal band of painted or sculptured decoration. 2 The horizontal band beneath the cornice of a bookcase or cabinet. A convex horizontal band beneath a cornice is known as a cushion frieze. A frieze rail is the horizontal length of wood beneath the top of a table or desk stand, and is also known as a curtain piece. 3 See column.

friggers
Unique novelty glassware items such as bells, pipes or toys made by glass-makers, not for use, but to demonstrate their skills.

frit
1 Powdered glass which is melted, allowed to solidify and then re-ground and used as a fusible substance in the manufacture of soft-paste porcelain. 2 The ingredients that are mixed and fired to make glass.

frizzen
See flintlock.

Fromanteel family
Large Flemish family of clock-makers working in London in the 17th and early 18th centuries. In 1658-9 John Fromanteel visited Holland to learn the art of pendulum clock-making. The family proceeded to make the first pendulum clocks for the London market c. 1659.

frosted glass
See ice glass.

frosted silver
Decorative effect on silverware produced by acid treatment. All commercial silver contains a proportion of copper. If the article is heated and dipped into a suitable acid, the copper component is eaten away, leaving a textured surface. This process was used to decorate silver articles in the 19thC, especially as a background for highly polished decoration on silver or silver gilt.

frozen Charlotte
A doll cast or modelled as a single complete piece. Frozen Charlottes were usually made of glazed porcelain and were also known as solid chinas. They were produced from the mid- 19thC to c. 1910. Some have a flesh-coloured china face and neck and a white china body. celluloid versions appeared from the early 20thC.

fubako
Long, rectangular Japanese lacquer box designed for carrying letters or messages.

fuchi
See kodogu.

fuddling cup
A vessel often with three or more small cups and interlinked handles. It was offered in jest as a challenge to drink from one cup without spilling the contents of the others. Fuddling cups were made in tin-glazed earthenware, specially in the West Country, in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Fulham Carpet Manufactory
The London site where the first large, Turkish-knotted woollen carpets were made in Britain. It was founded in 1750 by a Frenchman, Pierre Parisot, with the expertise of two savonnerie weavers. The high prices charged for the carpets forced the factory's closure in 1755, but the techniques were adopted by Thomas Whitty, founder of the axminster Carpet Manufactory.

Fulham pottery
See de morgan, William.

fuller
Groove in a blade of a sword or dagger designed to strengthen and lighten the blade. See sword.

fumed oak
The result of exposing new pieces of oak to ammonia solution to give them an appearance of age. The wood turns grey before fading to yellow-brown. The technique was popular in the 1930s and 40s and was used by the British designer Sir Ambrose heal.

Functionalism
Austere, early 20thC design movement based on the premise that 'form follows function'. The movement's ideas were best expressed in the book Ornament and Crime (1908), by architect Adolf Loos (1870-1933). Functionalism's impact on industrial design was particularly effected through the bauhaus school.

Fürstenburg
Small Bavarian porcelain factory founded 1747 which produced hard-paste porcelain from 1753. Early wares include Rococo-style vases and tableware in rich colours and gold, painted with landscapes, birds or figures. From 1770 the factory was influenced by berlin and sÈvres and produced busts, statues and painted wall plaques with ornamental Rococo frames. From c.1790 Fürstenburg followed » the neoclassical style and later the empire style products of Sèvres.

fused plate
See sheffield plate.

fusee
Coned-shaped device in clocks to even out the decreasing force of a going spring on unwinding. The device was invented c. 1500, used to the late 17thC in continental clocks and to c. 1750 in continental watches. In Britain its use in clocks and watches continued until c. 1880-1900. See also barrel and train.

fusil
A lightweight musket with a flintlock mechanism used in the 17th and 18th centuries.

fustian
The name for various textiles woven in a similar way to velvet with a short piled surface. They include a coarse material of cotton and flax used for bed-hangings and clothes in medieval Europe, a wool fabric made using the same weaving technique in the 14thC, and from the 16th to 19th centuries, coarse twilled cotton cloth, velveteen and corduroy.